India-Land and the People

"INDIA is the cradle of the human race, the birthplace of human speech, the mother of
history, the grandmother of legend and the great grandmother of tradition. Our most
valuable and most instructive materials in the history of man are treasured up in
India only."—Mark Twain
India has a unique culture and is one of the oldest and greatest civilizations of the
world. It stretches from the snow-capped Himalayas in the North to sun drenched
coastal villages of the South, the humid tropical forests on the south-west coast, the
fertile Brahamputra valley on its East to the Thar desert in the West. It covers an area
of 32,87,263 sq. km. It has achieved all-round socio-economic progress during the
last 62 years of its Independence. India has become self-sufficient in agricultural
production and is now the tenth industrialised country in the world and the sixth
nation to have gone into outer space to conquer nature for the benefit of the people.
As the 7th largest country in the world, India stands apart from the rest of Asia,
marked off as it is by mountains and the sea, which give the country a distinct
geographical entity. Bounded by the Great Himalayas in the north, it stretches
southwards and at the Tropic of Cancer, tapers off into the Indian Ocean between the
Bay of Bengal on the east and the Arabian Sea on the west.
Lying entirely in the northern hemisphere, the mainland extends between
latitudes 8°4' and 37°6' north, longitudes 68°7' and 97°25' east and measures about
3,214 km from north to south between the extreme latitudes and about 2,933 km from
east to west between the extreme longitudes. It has a land frontier of about 15,200 km.
The total length of the coastline of the mainland, Lakshadweep Islands and
Andaman & Nicobar Islands is 7,516.6 km.
PHYSICAL BACKGROUND
Countries having a common border with India are Afghanistan and Pakistan to the
north-west, China, Bhutan and Nepal to the north, Myanmar to the east and
Bangladesh to the east of West Bengal. Sri Lanka is separated from India by a narrow
channel of sea formed by the Palk Strait and the Gulf of Mannar.
PHYSICAL FEATURES
The mainland comprises four regions, namely, the great mountain zone, plains of the
Ganga and the Indus, the desert region and the southern peninsula.
The Himalayas comprise three almost parallel ranges interspersed with large
plateaus and valleys, some of which, like the Kashmir and Kullu valleys, are fertile,
extensive and of great scenic beauty. Some of the highest peaks in the world are found
in these ranges. The high altitudes admit travel only to a few passes, notably the Jelep
La and Nathu La on the main Indo-Tibet trade route through the Chumbi Valley,
north-east of Darjeeling and Shipki La in the Satluj valley, north-east of Kalpa
(Kinnaur). The mountain wall extends over a distance of about 2,400 km with a
varying depth of 240 to 320 km. In the east, between India and Myanmar and India
and Bangladesh, hill ranges are much lower. Garo, Khasi, Jaintia and Naga Hills,
running almost east-west, join the chain to Mizo and Rkhine Hills running northsouth.
The plains of the Ganga and the Indus, about 2,400 km long and 240 to 320 km
broad, are formed by basins of three distinct river systems - the Indus, the Ganga and
the Brahmaputra. They are one of the world's greatest stretches of flat alluvium and
also one of the most densely populated areas on the earth. Between the Yamuna at
Delhi and the Bay of Bengal, nearly 1,600 km away, there is a drop of only 200 metres
in elevation.
The desert region can be divided into two parts - the great desert and the little
desert. The great desert extends from the edge of the Rann of Kuchch beyond the Luni
river northward. The whole of the Rajasthan-Sind frontier runs through this. The
little desert extends from the Luni between Jaisalmer and Jodhpur up to the northern
wastes. Between the great and the little deserts lies a zone of absolutely sterile country,
consisting of rocky land, cut up by limestone ridges.
The Peninsular Plateau is marked off from the plains of the Ganga and the
Indus by a mass of mountain and hill ranges varying from 460 to 1,220 metres in
height. Prominent among these are the Aravalli, Vindhya, Satpura, Maikala and
Ajanta. The Peninsula is flanked on the one side by the Eastern Ghats where average
elevation is about 610 metres and on the other by the Western Ghats where it is
generally from 915 to 1,220 metres, rising in places to over 2,440 metres. Between the
Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea lies a narrow coastal strip, while between Eastern
Ghats and the Bay of Bengal there is a broader coastal area. The southern point of
plateau is formed by the Nilgiri Hills where the Eastern and the Western Ghats meet.
The Cardamom Hills lying beyond may be regarded as a continuation of the Western
Ghats.
GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE
The geological regions broadly follow the physical features and may be grouped into
three regions: the Himalayas and their associated group of mountains, the Indo-
Ganga Plain and the Peninsular Shield.
The Himalayan mountain belt to the north and the Naga-Lushai mountain in
the east, are the regions of mountain-building movement. Most of this area, now
presenting some of the most magnificent mountain scenery in the world, was under
marine conditions about 60 crore years ago. In a series of mountain-building
movements commencing about seven crore years ago, the sediments and the basement
rocks rose to great heights. The weathering and erosive agencies worked on these to
produce the relief seen today. The Indo-Ganga plains are a great alluvial tract that
separate the Himalayas in the north from the Peninsula in the south.
The Peninsula is a region of relative stability and occasional seismic
disturbances. Highly metamorphosed rocks of the earliest periods, dating back as far
as 380 crore years, occur in the area; the rest being covered by the coastal-bearing
Gondwana formations, lava flows belonging to the Deccan Trap formation and
younger sediments.
RIVER SYSTEMS
The river systems of India can be classified into four groups viz., (i) Himalayan rivers,
(ii) Deccan rivers, (iii) Coastal rivers, and (iv) Rivers of the inland drainage basin. The
Himalayan rivers are formed by melting snow and glaciers and therefore,
continuously flow throughout the year. During the monsoon months, Himalayas
receive very heavy rainfall and rivers swell, causing frequent floods. The Deccan
rivers on the other hand are rainfed and therefore fluctuate in volume. Many of these
are non-perennial. The Coastal streams, especially on the west coast are short in
length and have limited catchment areas. Most of them are non-perennial. The streams
of inland drainage basin of western Rajasthan are few and far apart. Most of them are
of an ephemeral character.
The main Himalayan river systems are those of the Indus and the Ganga-
Brahmaputra-Meghna system. The Indus, which is one of the great rivers of the
world, rises near Mansarovar in Tibet and flows through India and thereafter through
Pakistan and finally falls in the Arabian sea near Karachi. Its important tributaries
flowing in Indian territory are the Sutlej (originating in Tibet), the Beas, the Ravi, the
Chenab and the Jhelum. The Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna is another important
system of which the principal sub-basins are those of Bhagirathi and the Alaknanda,
which join at Dev Prayag to form the Ganga. It traverses through Uttarakhand, Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal states. Below Rajmahal hills, the Bhagirathi, which
used to be the main course in the past, takes off, while the Padma continues eastward
and enters Bangladesh. The Yamuna, the Ramganga, the Ghaghra, the Gandak, the
Kosi, the Mahananda and the Sone are the important tributaries of the Ganga. Rivers
Chambal and Betwa are the important sub-tributaries, which join Yamuna before it
meets the Ganga. The Padma and the Brahmaputra join at Bangladesh and continue
to flow as the Padma or Ganga. The Brahmaputra rises in Tibet, where it is known as
Tsangpo and runs a long distance till it crosses over into India in Arunachal Pradesh
under the name of Dihang. Near Passighat, the Debang and Lohit join the river
Brahmaputra and the combined river runs all along the Assam in a narrow valley. It
crosses into Bangladesh downstream of Dhubri.
The principal tributaries of Brahmaputra in India are the Subansiri, Jia Bhareli,
Dhansiri, Puthimari, Pagladiya and the Manas. The Brahmaputra in Bangladesh fed
by Tista etc., finally falls into Ganga. The Barak river, the Head stream of Meghna,
rises in the hills in Manipur. The important tributaries of the river are Makku, Trang,
Tuivai, Jiri, Sonai, Rukni, Katakhal, Dhaleswari, Langachini, Maduva and Jatinga.
Barak continues in Bangladesh till the combined Ganga—Brahmaputra join it near
Bhairab Bazar.
In the Deccan region, most of the major river systems flowing generally in east
direction fall into Bay of Bengal. The major east flowing rivers are Godavari, Krishna,
Cauvery, Mahanadi, etc. Narmada and Tapti are major West flowing rivers.
The Godavari in the southern Peninsula has the second largest river basin
covering 10 per cent of the area of India. Next to it is the Krishna basin in the region,
while the Mahanadi has the third largest basin. The basin of the Narmada in the
uplands of the Deccan, flowing to the Arabian Sea and of the Kaveri in the south,
falling into the Bay of Bengal are about the same size, though with different character
and shape.
There are numerous coastal rivers, which are comparatively small. While only
handful of such rivers drain into the sea near the delta of east coast, there are as many
as 600 such rivers on the west coast.
A few rivers in Rajasthan do not drain into the sea. They drain into salt lakes
and get lost in sand with no outlet to sea. Besides these, there are the desert rivers
which flow for some distance and are lost in the desert. These are Luni, Machhu,
Rupen, Saraswati, Banas, Ghaggar and others.
CLIMATE
The climate of India may be broadly described as tropical monsoon type. There are
four seasons: (i) winter (January-February), (ii) hot weather summer (March-May);
(iii) rainy south-western monsoon (June-September) and (iv) post-monsoon, also
known as north-east monsoon in the southern Peninsula (October-December). India's
climate is affected by two seasonal winds - the north-east monsoon and the southwest
monsoon. The north-east monsoon commonly known as winter monsoon blows
from land to sea whereas south-west monsoon known as summer monsoon blows
from sea to land after crossing the Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea and the Bay of
Bengal. The south-west monsoon brings most of the rainfall during the year in the
country.
FLORA
With a wide range of climatic conditions from the torrid to the arctic, India has a rich
and varied vegetation, which only a few countries of comparable size possess. India
can be divided into eight distinct-floristic-regions, namely, the western Himalayas,
the eastern Himalayas, Assam, the Indus plain, the Ganga plain, the Deccan, Malabar
and the Andamans.
The Western Himalayan region extends from Kashmir to Kumaon. Its temperate
zone is rich in forests of chir, pine, other conifers and broad-leaved temperate trees.
Higher up, forests of deodar, blue pine, spruce and silver fir occur. The alpine zone
extends from the upper limit of the temperate zone of about 4,750 metres or even
higher. The characteristic trees of this zone are high-level silver fir, silver birch and
junipers. The eastern Himalayan region extends from Sikkim eastwards and embraces
Darjeeling, Kurseong and the adjacent tract. The temperate zone has forests of oaks,
laurels, maples, rhododendrons, alder and birch. Many conifers, junipers and dwarf
willows also grow here. The Assam region comprises the Brahamaputra and the
Surma valleys with evergreen forests, occasional thick clumps of bamboos and tall
grasses. The Indus plain region comprises the plains of Punjab, western Rajasthan
and northern Gujarat. It is dry, hot and supports natural vegetation. The Ganga plain
region covers the area which is alluvial plain and is under cultivation for wheat,
sugarcane and rice. Only small areas support forests of widely differing types. The
Deccan region comprises the entire table land of the Indian Peninsula and supports
vegetation of various kinds from scrub jungles to mixed deciduous forests. The Malabar
region covers the excessively humid belt of mountain country parallel to the west
coast of the Peninsula. Besides being rich in forest vegetation, this region produces
important commercial corps, such as coconut, betelnut, pepper, coffee, tea, rubber
and cashewnut. The Andaman region abounds in evergreen, mangrove, beach and
diluvial forests. The Himalayan region extending from Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh
through Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, Meghalaya and Nagaland and the Deccan Peninsula
is rich in endemic flora, with a large number of plants which are not found elsewhere.
India is rich in flora. Available data place India in the tenth position in the
world and fourth in Asia in plant diversity. From about 70 per cent geographical area
surveyed so far, over 46,000 species of plants have been described by the Botanical
Survey of India (BSI), Kolkata. The vascular flora, which forms the conspicuous
vegetation cover, comprises 15,000 species. The flora of the country is being studied
by BSI and its nine circle/field offices located throughout the country along with
certain universities and research institutions.
Ethno-botanical study deals with the utilisation of plants and plant products
by ethnic races. A scientific study of such plants has been made by BSI. A number of
detailed ethno-botanical explorations have been conducted in different tribal areas
of the country. More than 800 plant species of ethno-botanical interest have been
collected and identified at different centres.
Owing to destruction of forests for agricultural, industrial and urban
development, several Indian plants are facing extinction. About 1,336 plant species
are considered vulnerable and endangered. About 20 species of higher plants are
categorised as possibly extinct as these have not been sighted during the last 6-10
decades. BSI brings out an inventory of endangered plants in the form of a publication
titled Red Data Book.
FAUNA
The Zoological Survey of India (ZSI), with its headquarters in Kolkata and 16 regional
stations is responsible for surveying the faunal resources of India. Possessing a
tremendous diversity of climate and physical conditions, India has great variety of
fauna numbering over 89,000 species. Of these, protista number 2,577, mollusca
5,070, anthropoda 68,389, amphibia 209, mammalia 390, reptilia 456, members of
protochordata 119, pisces 2,546, aves 1,232 and other invertebrates 8,329.
The mammals include the majestic elephant, the gaur or Indian bison–the largest
of existing bovines, the great Indian rhinoceros, the gigantic wild sheep of the
Himalayas, the swamp deer, the thamin spotted deer, nilgai, the four-horned antelope,
the Indian antelope or black-buck – the only representatives of these genera. Among
the cats, the tiger and lion are the most magnificent of all; other splendid creatures
such as the clouded leopard, the snow leopard, the marbled cat, etc., are also found.
Many other species of mammals are remarkable for their beauty, colouring, grace and
uniqueness. Several birds, like pheasants, geese, ducks, myanahs, parakeets, pigeons,
cranes, hornbills and sunbirds inhabit forests and wetlands.
Rivers and lakes harbour crocodiles and gharials, the latter being the only
representative of crocodilian order in the world. The salt water crocodile is found
along the eastern coast and in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. A project for
breeding crocodiles which started in 1974, has been instrumental in saving the
crocodile from extinction.
The great Himalayan range has a very interesting variety of fauna that includes
the wild sheep and goats, markhor, ibex, shrew and tapir. The panda and the snow
leopard are found in the upper reaches of the mountains.
Depletion of vegetative cover due to expansion of agriculture, habitat
destruction, over-exploitation, pollution, introduction of toxic imbalance in community
structure, epidemics, floods, droughts and cyclones, contribute to the loss of flora
and fauna. More than 39 species of mammals, 72 species of birds, 17 species of
reptiles, three species of amphibians, two species of fish and a large number of
butterflies, moth and beetles are considered vulnerable and endangered.
DEMOGRAPHIC BACKGROUND
CENSUS
The Census of India 2001, is historic and epoch making, being the first census of the
twenty-first century and the third millennium. It reveals benchmark data on the state
of abundant human resources available in the country, their demography, culture
and economic structure at a juncture, which marks a centennial and millenial
transition.
The population enumeration of 2001 census was undertaken during 9-28
February 2001 with a revisional round from 1-5 March 2001. The census moment, the
referral time at which the snapshot of the population is taken was 00.00 hours of
1 March 2001. Until the 1991 Census, the sunrise of 1 March was taken to be the
census moment. The houseless population, as has been the usual practice, was
enumerated on the night of 28 February 2001.
POPULATION
India's population as on 1 March 2001 stood at 1,028 million (532.1 million males
and 496.4 million females). India accounts for a meagre 2.4 per cent of the world
surface area of 135.79 million sq km. Yet, it supports and sustains a whopping 16.7
per cent of the world population.
The population of India, which at the turn of the twentieth century was around
238.4 million, increased to reach 1,028 million at the dawn of the twenty-first century.
The population of India as recorded at each decennial census from 1901 has grown
steadily except for a decrease during 1911-21. Decadal growth of population from
1901 is shown in table 1.1.
Table 1.2 gives the selected indicators of population growth in different States
and Union Territories. The per cent decadal growth of population in the inter-censal
period 1991-2001 varies from a low of 9.43 in Kerala to a very high 64.53 in Nagaland.
Delhi with 47.02 per cent, Chandigarh with 40.28 per cent and Sikkim with 33.06 per
cent registered very high growth rates. In addition to Kerala, Tamilnadu and Andhra
Pradesh registered low growth rates during 1991-2001.
POPULATION DENSITY
One of the important indices of population concentration is the density of population.
It is defined as the number of persons per sq km. The population density of India in
2001 was 324 per sq km.
The density of population was increased in all States and Union Territories
between 1991 and 2001. Among major states, West Bengal is still the most thickly
populated state with a population density of 903 in 2001. Bihar is now the second
highest densely populated state pushing Kerala to the third place. Ranking of the
States and Union Territories by density is shown in table 1.3.
SEX RATIO
Sex ratio, defined as the number of females per thousand males is an important social
indicator to measure the extent of prevailing equality between males and females in
a society at a given point of time. The sex ratio in the country had always remained
unfavourable to females. It was 972 at the beginning of the 20th century and thereafter
showed continuous decline until 1941.
LITERACY
For the purpose of census 2001, a person aged seven and above, who can both read
and write with understanding in any language, is treated as literate. A person, who
can only read but cannot write, is not literate. In the censuses prior to 1991, children
below five years of age were necessarily treated as illiterates.

 

 

 

 

 

The results of 2001 census reveal that there has been an increase in literacy in
the country. The literacy rate in the country is 64.84 per cent, 75.26 for males and 53.67
for females. The steady improvement in literacy is apparent from the table 1.5.
Kerala retained its position by being on top with a 90.86 per cent literacy rate,
closely followed by Mizoram (88.80 per cent) and Lakshadweep (86.66 per cent).
Bihar with a literacy rate of 47.00 per cent ranks last in the country preceded by
Jharkhand (53.56 per cent) and Jammu and Kashmir (55.52 per cent). Kerala also
occupies the top spot in the country both in male literacy with 94.24 per cent and
female literacy with 87.72 per cent. On the contrary, Bihar has recorded the lowest
literacy rates both in case of males (59.68 per cent) and females (33.12 per cent). Table
1.6 shows the literacy rate among persons, male and female in States and UTs, and
their ranking.